################################### Style: Lessons in Clarity and Grace ################################### ********************************** Ten Principles for Writing Clearly ********************************** #. Distinguish real grammatical rules from folklore. #. Use subjects to name the characters in your story. #. Use verbs to name their important actions. #. Open your sentences with familiar units of information. #. Get to the main verb quickly: - Avoid long introductory phrases and clauses. - Avoid long abstract subjects. - Avoid interrupting the subject-verb connection. #. Push new, complex units of information to the end of the sentence. #. Begin sentences that form a unit with consistent subjects/topics. #. Be concise: - Cut meaningless and repeated words and obvious implications. - Put the meaning of phrases into one or two words. - Prefer affirmative sentences to negative ones. #. Control sprawl: - Don't tack more than one subordinate clause onto another. - Extend a sentence with resumptive, summative, and free modifiers. - Extend a sentence with coordinate structures after verbs. #. Above all, write to others as you would have others write to you. *************** Style as Choice *************** Understanding Style =================== - Unclear writing is a social problem rooted in tradition. - Some writers use complicated sentences to indicate deep thought. - Some writers are focused on minimizing grammatical errors instead of readers' comprehension. - Some writers need more experience in their academic or professional setting. - Most writers don't know how readers will interpret their discourse. Correctness =========== Present tense inflections ------------------------- - :math:`\left\{ \text{Singular}, \text{Plural} \right\} \times \left\{ \text{1st Person}, \text{2nd Person}, \text{3rd Person} \right\}`. - Only Singular 3rd Person still requires the additional -s. Three Kinds of Rules -------------------- - Real Rules - Defines the essence of a language. - English requires articles (i.e. a / an / the) to precede nouns. - Social Rules - Distinguish between standard and non-standard. - Native speakers only think about them when they notice others violating them. - Only non-native speakers self-consciously try to follow them. - Invented Rules - "Bullshit" invented by grammarians because they can. #. Don't split infinitives (e.g. to *quietly* leave). #. Don't end a sentence with a proposition (i.e. on, at, in). #. Don't use *hopefully* for *I hope*. #. Don't use *which* for that (e.g. a car *which* I sold). Two Kinds of Invented Rules --------------------------- - Folklore #. Don't begin sentences with *and* or *but*. - This "rule" probably stems from advice aimed at avoiding sentence fragments. - This "rule" can be violated; however, subordinate clause beginning with *because* usually introduces new information. - Words like *since* can be used to begin a sentence with a clause expressing familiar about causation. #. Use the relative pronoun *that* -- not *which* -- for restrictive clauses. - The inventor of this "rule" wanted to remove the random variation between *that* and *which*. - A nonrestrictive clause modifies a noun naming a referent that you can identify unambiguously without the information in that clause. - An example would be a company's bankruptcy versus product line. There can only be one bankruptcy, but many products can be sold. The former is appropriate for *which* while the latter should use *that*. - This "rule" may be broken for stylistic reasons. - *that* sounds softer that *which*. - Using two *thats* close together doesn't sound good. #. Use *fewer* with nouns you count, *less* with nouns you cannot. - No one uses *less* with mass nouns (e.g. dirt, pounds). - Educated writers often use *less* with countable plural nouns (e.g. resources). #. Use *since* and *while* to refer only to time, not to mean *because* or *although*. - People ignore this rule. - *since* can be associated with "What follows I assume you already know." - *while* can be associated with "I assume you know what I state in this clause, but what assert in the next will qualify it." - Elegant Options #. Don't split infinitives. - This "rule" is nonsense. #. Use *whom* as the object of a verb or preposition. - A more appropriate rule: use *who* when it is the subject of a verb in its own clause; use *whom* only when it is an object in its own clause. - When a relative clause modifies a noun, the correct form is *whom* if you can delete the relative pronoun and still make sense. If you cannot delete the *who/whom*, the correct form is *who*. - You cannot delete *whom* when it begins a clause that is the object of a verb. - Always use *whom* as the object of a proposition. #. Don't end a sentence with a proposition. - This is often violated unless one wants a more formal style. - Violation of this can end a sentence weakly. #. Use the singular with *none* and *any*. - This will make the writing style more formal. Hobgoblins ---------- - Never use *like* for *as* or *as if*. - This "rule" is arbitrary nonsense. - Don't use "hopefully" to mean "I hope". - No basis in grammar or logic. - Don't use *finalize* to mean *finish* or *complete*. - Hundreds of other useful words end in -ize. - Don't use *impact* as a verb; use it only as a noun. - No historical evidence of this. - Don't modify absolute words such as perfect, unique, final, complete, etc...with very, more, quite, etc.... - This is a good "rule" in general, but can be violated. - Never ever use irregardless for regardless or irrespective. - Follow this "rule" despite how arbitrary it is. - We currently have a problem with singular generic pronouns. - "No one should turn in their writing unedited". - This solution requires accepting the plural they as a correct singular. ******* Clarity ******* Actions ======= Principle of Clarity -------------------- - Make main characters subjects. - Make important actions verbs. Verbs and Actions ----------------- - A sentence seems clear when its important actions are in verbs. - Readers will think your writing is dense if you overuse abstract nouns. - Using lots of nominalizations, especially as the subjects of verbs, will make your writing turgid. Revision is a Three-Step Process -------------------------------- #. Diagnose - Ignoring short (four- or five-word) introductory phrases, underline the first seven or eight words in each sentence. - Look for two results: - You underlined abstract nouns as simple subjects. - You underlined seven or eight words before getting to a verb. #. Analyze - Decide who your main characters are. - Look for actions that those characters perform, especially actions in nominalizations. #. Rewrite - If the actions are nominalizations, make them verbs. - Make the characters the subjects of the verbs. - Rewrite the sentence with subordinating conjunctions (e.g. because, if, when, although, why, how, whether, that). Common Nominalization Patterns to Revise ---------------------------------------- - The nominalization is the subject of an empty verb (e.g. be, seems, has). #. Change the nominalization to a verb. #. Find a character that would be the subject of that verb. #. Make that character the subject of the new verb. - The nominalization follows an empty verb. #. Change the nominalization to a verb. #. Replace the empty verb with the new verb. - One nominalization is the subject of an empty verb and a second nominalization follows it. #. Revise the nominalizations into verbs. #. Identify the characters that would be the subjects of those verbs. #. Make those characters the subject of those verbs. #. Link the new clauses with a logical connection. - To express simple cause: because, since, when. - To express conditional cause: if, provided that, so long as. - To contradict expected causes: though, although, unless. - A nominalization follows there is or there are. #. Change the nominalization to a verb. #. Identify the character that should be the subjects of the verb. #. Make that character the subject of the verb. - Two or three nominalizations in a row joined by prepositions. #. Turn the first nominalization into a verb. #. Either leave the second nominalization as it is, or turn it into a verb in a clause beginning with how or why. Useful Nominalizations to Keep ------------------------------ - A nominalization that is a short subject that refers to a previous sentence. - A short nominalization that replaces an awkward "The fact that...". - A nominalization that names what would be the object of the verb. - A nominalization that refers to a concept so familiar to your readers that to them, it is a virtual character. Characters ========== Understanding the Importance of Characters ------------------------------------------ - Readers want actions in verbs, but they want characters as subjects even more. - Readers prefer concrete subjects over abstract ones (e.g. fear). Diagnosis and Revision ---------------------- #. Underline the first seven or eight words. #. Find the main characters. - They may be: - possessive pronouns attached to nominalizations, - objects of prepositions (e.g. by, of), - implied. #. Skim the passage for actions involving those characters, particularly actions buried in nominalizations. - Ask "who is doing what?". - "governmental intervention" :math:`\rightarrow` "government intervenes". - "interference" :math:`\rightarrow` "[government] interferes". - Be aware that just as actions can be implied in adjectives, so can characters. - "reliable" :math:`\rightarrow` "rely". - "theological" :math:`\rightarrow` "theologians". #. Reassemble those new subjects and verbs into a sentence using conjunctions. Reconstructing Absent Characters -------------------------------- - Readers have the biggest problem with sentences devoid of all characters. - When you are explaining a complicated issue to someone involved in it, imagine sitting across the table from that person, saying *you* as often as you can. - If *you* seems not appropriate, change it to a character that is. - Abstractions as Characters - Readers want the subjects of verbs to name flesh-and-blood characters. - When the main characters are abstractions, make them the subjects of verbs that tell a story. - If readers are unfamiliar with the abstractions, avoid using other abstract nominalizations around them. - English does not have a good solution for naming a generic "doer". - Try a general term to describe whoever is doing the action; when that is not possible, use *we*. Characters and Passive Voice ---------------------------- - Active Voice - Put the agent or source of an action in the subject. - Put the goal or receiver of an action in a direct object. - Passive Voice - The subject names the goal of the action. - The agent or source of the action is after the verb in a *by*-phrase or dropped entirely. - Beyond Grammatical Meanings of Active and Passive - Both forms can exhibit figurative, impressionistic meanings as well as flat feelings. - There are exceptions to "Write in the active voice, not in the passive". - Choosing Between Active and Passive - Must your readers know who is responsible for the action? - Sometimes we don't know, we don't want the readers to know, or the reader doesn't care. - Would the active or passive verb help your readers move more smoothly from one sentence to the next? - Would the active or passive give readers a more consistent and appropriate point of view? - Pick a point of view and stick to it. - Passives, Characters, and Metadiscourse - Metadiscourse is language that refers not to the substance of your ideas, but to yourself, your reader, or your writing: - Your thinking and act of writing: We/I will explain, show, argue, summarize... - Your readers' actions: consider now, as you recall, look at the next example... - The logic and form of what you have written: first, second; to begin; therefore, however, consequently... - Beware of dangling modifiers when writing passive sentences. - You dangle a modifier when an introductory phrase has an implied subject that differs from the explicit subject in the following or preceding clause. - Deleting *I* or *we* from a sentence does not make it more objective. - Avoid using too many *I*'s and *we*'s. - Avoid writing a narrative prose. - Long Compound Noun Phrase - Strings of nouns feel lumpy, so avoid them. - Revise all compound nouns that consists of more than two nouns, especially if they contain nominalizations. #. Reverse the order of words. #. Find propositions to connect them. Cohesion and Coherence ====================== Cohesion -------- - Sense of Flow - The last few words of one sentence set up information that appears in the first few words of the next sentence. - Passive voice allows us to arrange sentences so that they flow from one to the next easily. - Writers often put words (e.g. this, these, that, those, another, such, second, more) at or close to the beginning of a sentence to refer to something in a previous sentence. - Diagnosis and Revision #. Begin sentences with information familiar to your readers. - Readers get that familiar information from either the words they remember from the sentences they just read or prior knowledge. #. End sentences with information that readers cannot anticipate. - Readers always prefer to read what's new and complex after they read what's familiar and simple. - A passage's overall cohesion trumps the clarity of individual sentences. Coherence --------- - A Sense of the Whole - The subjects of the sentences need to be related. - Subjects, Topics, and Cohesion - The flaw of defining *subject* as what a sentence is about, its main topic. - The subject of a sentence doesn't state its main topic. - Other parts of the sentence often "comments" on the topic. - Diagnosis and Revision #. Diagnose - Underline the first seven or eight words of every sentence in a passage, stopping when you hit a verb. - If possible, underline the first five or six words of every clause in those sentences. #. Analyze - Do the underlined words constitute a relatively small set of related ideas? Will the readers see that? - Do the underlined words name the most important characters, real or abstract? #. Rewrite - In most of your sentences, use subjects to name their topics. - Be sure those topics are, in context, familiar to your readers. Avoiding Distractions at the Beginning of a Sentence ---------------------------------------------------- - Before you begin writing, name the things you are writing about. - Those are your topics; they should be short, concrete, familiar words, and more often than not, they should name the main characters in your story. - Your topics should tell your readers what a passage is globally about. - Most of your subjects should be topics. - Do not vary your subjects for the sake of variety. Two Qualifications ------------------ - Alleged Monotony - "Vary how you begin your sentences" is a BAD idea, especially when you change subjects just to make them different. - If you have used exactly the same words for the same topics in exactly the same positions, you can vary a few of the words that refer to a repeated topic. - Faked Coherence - Readers do not need conjunctions (e.g. thus, therefore, however) when your sentences are cohesive and the passage they constitute is coherent. - Use *but* and *however* when you contradict or qualify what you just said. - Use *therefore* or *consequently* to wind up a line of reasoning. - Minimize the number of times these words show up in a single page. Emphasis ======== Understanding How Sentences End ------------------------------- - Your readers want you to organize your sentences to help them manage: i. long and complex phrases and clauses; ii. new information, particularly unfamiliar technical terms. - Carry the reader from simplicity to complexity: i. a short introductory phrase or clause, ii. followed by a short, concrete subject, iii. followed by a verb expressing a specific action; iv. after the verb, the sentence can go on for several lines. Diagnosis and Revision: Stress ------------------------------ - Readers look at the last few words for emphasis. - Three Tactical Revisions #. Trim the end. #. Shift peripheral (insignificant) ideas to the left. #. Shift new information to the right. - Six Syntactic Devices to Emphasize the Right Words #. There shift: Using "there is/there are" constructions lets you shift a subject to the right, thereby emphasizing it more. #. Passives: A passive verb lets you flip a subject and object; use it to get old and new information in the right order. #. What shift: Another device that shifts a part of the sentence to the right, thereby emphasizing it more. #. It shift: When you have a subject consisting of a long noun clause, you can move it to the end of the sentence and start with *it*. #. Not only X, but (also) Y (as well): Emphasizes Y. #. Pronoun substitution and ellipsis: Instead of repeating the noun, use a pronoun; this will avoid flat endings and reader voice drops, which means the reader will at least hear emphasis on the word just before *it*. Topics, Emphasis, Themes, and Coherence --------------------------------------- - Put key words in the stress position of the first sentence of a passage in order to emphasize the key ideas that organize the rest of it. - We call those key concepts that run through a passage its themes. - Help readers identity concepts running through a passage in two ways: #. Repeat those that name characters as topics of sentences, usually as subjects. #. Repeat others as themes elsewhere in a passage, in nouns, verbs, and adjectives. *************** Clarity of Form *************** Motivation ========== Understanding Motivation ------------------------ - We read most attentively when we read about a problem that is important (and possibly interesting) to us. - Part 1: Establishing Shared Context - Remind readers of what they know (e.g. historical background), have experienced (e.g. a recent event), or readily accept (e.g. a common belief). - Part 2: Stating the Problem - The Two Parts of a Problem - The first part is some condition or situation that has potential to cause trouble. - The second part is the intolerable consequence of that condition, a cost that readers don't want to pay. - Two Kinds of Problems - A practical problem concerns a condition or situation in the world and demands an action as its solution. - A conceptual problem concerns what we think about something and demands a change in understanding as a solution. - This may be a small question that contributes to answering a larger, more important one; otherwise, the question may not be worth asking. - The condition is always something that we do not know or understand. - The cost is the dissatisfaction we feel because we don't understand something important to us; not the palpable unhappiness we feel from pain, suffering, or loss. - Part 3: Stating the Solution - To solve a practical problem, propose that the reader (or someone) do something to change a condition in the world. - To solve a conceptual problem, state something the writer wants readers to understand or believe. - Another Part: Prelude - Most common in humanities and writing for the general public. - Typical Approaches: a quotation, a startling fact, an illustrative anecdote, or a combination of the previous. Diagnosis and Revision ---------------------- #. Determine whether you are posing a practical or conceptual problem. #. Draw a line after your introduction. #. Divide the introduction into its three parts: shared context + problem + solution/main point/claim. #. Make sure the first word of the first sentence after the shared context is *but*, *however*, or some other word indicating that you will challenge/qualify that shared context. #. Divide the problem into two parts: condition and cost. - Is the condition the right kind for the problem? - Does the cost appropriately answer "So What"? #. Underline your solution/main point/claim. Conclusions ----------- #. Open your conclusion by stating (or restating) the gist of your point, the main claim of your paper, the solution to your problem. #. Explain its significance by answering "So What?" in a new way, if you can; if not, restate what you offered in the introduction, now as a benefit. #. Suggest a further question or problem to be solved, something still not known. Answer "Now What?". #. End with an anecdote, quotation, or fact that echoes your prelude. - Popular writing describe this as your *coda*. Global Coherence ================ Coherence is an Experience and Does Not Refer to Anything on a Page ------------------------------------------------------------------- Forecasting Themes to Create Coherence -------------------------------------- - Document #. Identify the start of each new section with a heading that includes the key themes for that section. #. At the end of the introduction, readers look for the document's main point/solution to the problem, which should state the main themes developed in the rest. - If you choose to save your main point for the conclusion, put a sentence at the end of the introduction that promises the point to come and states the main themes. #. In the body, readers look for the concepts announced as themes at the end of the introduction, using them to organize their understanding of the whole. - Be sure that you repeat those themes regularly. - Section/Subsection #. Readers look for a short segment that introduces the section or subsection. #. At the end of that introductory segment, readers look for a sentence that states both the point of the section and the special concepts you will develop as distinctive themes for that section. #. In the body of the section, readers look for the concepts announced as themes at the end of the introduction segment, using them to organize their understanding of that section. - Be sure that you repeat them regularly. - Put the point sentence at the end of the short opening segment; make it the last sentence (e.g. introductory segment) that your reader reads before starting the longer, more complex segment that follows. Two More Requirements for Coherence ----------------------------------- #. Readers must see how everything in a section or whole is relevant to its point. - Sentences are relevant to a point when they offer: background or context; points of sections and the whole; reasons supporting a point; evidence, facts, or data supporting a reason; an explanation of reasoning or methods; consideration of other points of view. #. Readers must see how the parts of your document are ordered. - Chronological: time or cause and effect. - Coordinate: ordering of the sections according to some criterion (e.g. importance, complexity). - Logical: complex ordering such as :math:`\text{example} \leftrightarrow \text{generalization}`, :math:`\text{premise} \leftrightarrow \text{conclusion}`, and :math:`\text{assertion} \leftrightarrow \text{contradiction}`. A Basic Principle of Clarity ---------------------------- - Readers are more likely to judge as clear any unit of writing that opens with a short segment that they can easily grasp and that frames the longer and more complex segment that follows. - A unit of writing entails either a simple or complex sentence, one or more paragraphs, one or more pages. - Get beginnings of the document, major sections, subsections, paragraphs, and sentences straight, and the rest is likely to take care of itself. ***** Grace ***** Concision ========= Six Principles of Concision --------------------------- #. Delete meaningless words. - E.g. kind of, actually, particular, really, certain, various, virtually, individual, basically, generally, given, practically. #. Delete doubled words. - E.g. full and complete, hope and trust, any and all, true and accurate, each and every, basic and fundamental, hopes and desires, first and foremost, various and sundry. #. Delete what readers can infer. - Redundant Modifiers - E.g. terrible tragedy, various different, free gift, basic fundamentals, future plans, each individual, final outcome, true facts, consensus of opinion. - Redundant Categories - May have to change an adjective into an adverb or a noun. - General Implications - Example: imagine someone trying to learn the rules for playing the game of chess. - Learn -> trying, rules -> playing the game, and chess -> game. - Imagine learning the rules of chess. #. Replace a phrase with a word. #. Change negatives to affirmatives unless you want to emphasize the negative. - Implicitly Negative Words - Example verbs: preclude, prevent, lack, fail, doubt, reject, avoid, deny, refuse, exclude, contradict, prohibit, bar. - Example prepositions: without, against, lacking, but for, except. - Example conjunctions: unless, except when. - Avoid combining not with negative words. - Avoid combining explicitly and implicitly negative words with passives and nominalizations. #. Delete adjectives and adverbs. Redundant Metadiscourse ----------------------- - Metadiscourse that attributes your ideas to a source. - Announce that something has been observed, noticed, noted, etc... - Metadiscourse that announces your topic. - Call attention to a topic i.e. separate topic and subject. Hedges and Intensifiers ----------------------- - Hedges qualify your certainty. - Common adverbs: usually, often, sometimes, almost, virtually, possibly, alledgely, arguably, perhaps, apparently, in some ways, to a certain extent, somewhat, in some/certain respects. - Common adjectives: most, many, some, a certain number of. - Common verbs: may, might, can, could seem, tend, appear, suggest, indicate. - Intensifiers increase your certainty. - The most common intensifier is the absence of a hedge i.e. 100% certainty. - Common adverbs: very, pretty, quite, rather, clearly, obviously, undoubtedly, certainly, of course, indeed, inevitably, invariably, always, literally. - Common adjectives: key, central, crucial, basic, fundamental, major, principal, essential. - Common verbs: show, prove, establish, as you/we/everyone knows/can see, it is clear/obvious that. - When most readers encounter words like *obviously, undoubtedly, it is clear that*, they reflexively think the opposite. - When using metadiscourse to state a solution, beware of making it sound like announcing a topic instead of sounding like advancing a claim. - If without the metadiscourse the resulting claim seems self-evident, you need to say more or do more thinking about what you want to say. Concise, Not Terse ------------------ - Mind how your writing feels to your readers. Shape ===== Diagnosis and Revision: Sprawl ------------------------------ - You feel out of breathe before you come to a place where you can pause to integrate all of its parts into a whole that communicates a single conceptual structure. - Rule of Thumb 1: Get to the subject quickly. - Move the long introductory clause to the end or turn it into a separate sentence. - English style have clauses beginning with *if, since, when, although* before main clauses, so keep those subordinate clauses short. - Use periodic/suspended style sparingly because the deliberately piled up introductory subordinate clauses are still tiring to read. - Rule of Thumb 2: Get to the verb and object quickly. - Avoid long, abstract subjects. - Avoid interrupting the subject-verb connection; if not possible, then minimize the duration. - Avoid interrupting the verb-object connection. - When a movable prepositional phrase is shorter than a long object, try putting the phrase between the verb and object. Starting with Your Point ------------------------ - Begin a paragraph with a sentence (or two) expressing its point so that readers can understand what follows. - Begin a section of a document with a paragraph or two stating its point. - Begin a whole document with an introduction that states its point and frames the rest. - The explanation or support material should always follow a point and not before. Reshaping Sprawl ---------------- #. Cut - Reduce some of the relative clauses e.g. delete combinations of *who, that, which* and *is, was*. - Rewrite remaining verb into an *-ing* form. #. Turn subordinate clauses into independent sentences. #. Change clauses to modifying phrases. - Resumptive Modifiers - Find the noun the tacked-on clause modifies, pause after it with a comma, repeat the noun, and continue with a restrictive relative clause beginning with that. - For an adjective or verb, repeat it after a comma and continue. - *one that* can be used as a resumptive modifier. - Summative Modifiers - End a grammatically complete segment of a sentence with a comma, add a term that sums up the substance of the sentence so far, and continue with a restrictive relative clause beginning with *that*. - Free Modifiers - Can either begin or end a sentence. - Resembles resumptive and summative modifiers, but more focused towards commenting on the subject of the closest verb. - An adjective, a past participle verb, or an *-ing* present participle can denote the start of a free modifier. #. Coordinate - Group the elements into blocks and order them from shorter to longer, from simpler to more complex. - Emphasize a coordination with correlative conjunctions: both X and Y, not only X but Y, (n)either X (n)or Y. - The word that comes after *both, not only, (n)either* must be coordinate with the word that comes after *and, but, (n)or*. Troubleshooting Long Sentences ------------------------------ - Faulty Grammatical Coordination - We coordinate elements only of the same structure: clause and clause, prepositional phrase and prepositional phrase, etc... - Nonparallel coordinations do occur in two forms: - A noun phrase with a how clause. - An adverb with a prepositional phrase. - Faulty Rhetorical Coordination - Ensure the elements are coordinated in thought. - Unclear Connections - Long coordinations can make readers lose track of the internal connections and pronoun references. - Ambiguous Modifiers - A modifier at the end of a clause can ambiguously modify either a neighboring or a more distant phrase. - Dangling Modifiers - Occurs when its implied subject differs from the explicit subject of the main clause. Elegance ======== Balance and Symmetry -------------------- - Balanced Coordination: see the block anatomy of Walter Lippmann's speech. - Uncoordinated Balance: see the block anatomy. - Use these literary devices to emphasize important points. Climatic Emphasis ----------------- #. Weighty Words - Adjectives and adverbs are heavier than prepositions, but lighter than nouns, the heaviest of which are nominalizations. - Nominalizations at the end of a sentence provide a satisfyingly climatic thump, particularly when a pair of them are used in coordinate balance. #. Of + Weighty Word - The light *of* (followed by a lighter *a* or *the*) quickens the rhythm of a sentence just before the stress of the climatic end. #. Echoing Salience - At the end of a sentence, readers hear special emphasis when a stressed word or phrase balances the sound or meaning of an earlier one. #. Chiasmus - This device balances elements in two parts of a sentence, but the second part reverses the order of the elements in the first part. #. Suspension - One way to heighten a sense of climax is to open a sentence with a series of parallel and coordinated phrases and clauses. - The impact of a long suspension is inversely proportional to its frequency of use: the less it's used, the bigger the bang. Nuances of Length and Rhythm ---------------------------- - Think about the length of your sentences only if they are all longer than thirty words or so or shorter than fifteen. - Some write short sentences to strike a note of urgency, terse certainty, or directness. - Some write long sentences imbue feelings and thoughts. *********************** Appendix I: Punctuation *********************** Punctuated Sentence =================== - Begins with a capital letter. - Ends with a period or question/exclamation mark. - Contains at least one word. Grammatical Sentence ==================== - Subject and verb in a main clause along with everything else depending on that clause. Punctuating the Ends of Sentences ================================= Common Forms ------------ - Period (or Question/Exclamation Mark) Alone - Too many short punctuated sentences may make the prose seem choppy or simplistic. - Combine too many short grammatical sentences into one long one may result in sentence sprawl. - Semicolon Alone - Whatever is on either side of it should be a grammatical sentence. - The first grammatical sentence has fewer than fifteen words. - The content of the second grammatical sentence is closely linked with the first. - If used with *however*, *however* must come after it followed up with a comma. - Comma + Coordinating Conjunction - Readers expect the end of a grammatical sentence when they see a comma followed by two signals: a coordinating conjunction i.e. FANBOYS, or another subject and verb. - When readers begin a coordinated series of three or more grammatical sentences, they expect a comma between them and no internal punctuation. - If any of the grammatical sentences has internal punctuation, separate them with a semicolon. - All of these sentences should be short; otherwise, use a period instead. - Omit the comma between a coordinated pair of short grammatical sentences if you introduce them with a modifier that applies to both of them. - Use comma before *but* to qualify preceding sentence. - Minimize the use of this sentence structure to promote style. Less Common Forms ----------------- - Period + Coordinating Conjunction - Minimize the use of this sentence structure to promote style. - Use period before *But* if what follows is important and you intend to go on discussing it. - Semicolon + Coordinating Conjunction - Minimize the use of this sentence structure to promote style. - Conjunction Alone i.e. no preceding comma - Though writers of the best prose do this, some teachers consider this an error. - Comma Alone - The grammatical sentences are short, a few words each; closely linked in meaning e.g. cause-effect, first-second, if-then; and no internal commas. Special Cases ------------- - Colon - Shorthand for to illustrate, for example, that is, therefore. - Avoid a colon if it breaks a clause into two pieces, neither of which is a grammatically complete sentence. - Put a colon only after a whole subject-verb-object. - Dash: suggests a casual afterthought. - Parentheses: insert a short afterthought inside a grammatical sentence. Intended Sentence Fragments --------------------------- - Relatively short, fewer than ten or so words. - Reflect a mind at work: the writer is speaking to you, finishes a sentence, then immediately expanding and qualifying it. - Almost as an afterthought, often ironically. Punctuating Beginnings ====================== Five Reliable Rules ------------------- #. Always separate an introductory element from the subject of a sentence with a comma if a reader might misunderstand the structure of the sentence. #. Never end an introductory clause or phrase with a semicolon, no matter how long it is. #. Never put a comma right after a subordinating conjunction if the next element of the clause is its subject. #. Avoid putting a comma after the coordinating conjunctions if the next element is the subject. #. Put a comma after an introductory word or phrase if it comments on the whole of the following sentence or connects one sentence to another. - Example introductory words are: fortunately, alledgely, however, nevertheless, otherwise. - Omit the comma for the exceptional cases: now, thus, hence. Two Reliable Principles ----------------------- #. Readers usually need no punctuation between a short introductory phrase and the subject. #. Readers usually need a comma between a long (four or five words or more) introductory phrase or clause and the subject. Punctuating Middles =================== Subject-Verb, Verb-Object ------------------------- - Do not put a comma between a subject and its verb, no matter how long the subject (nor between the verb and its object). - If the sentence consists of a list with internal punctuation: - Use a colon or a dash at the end of the list of subjects. - Add a one-word subject that summarizes the preceding list. Interruptions ------------- - Avoid interrupting a subject-verb or verb-object except for reasons of emphasis or nuance. - Always put paired commas around the interruption. - Unnecessary clauses should be separated from the main clause with a comma. - Do not use a comma when tacking on a necessary subordinate clause at the end of an independent clause. - Adverbial phrases can go before, after, or in the middle of a clause depending on the desired emphasis. Loose Commentary ---------------- - Set off with paired commas, parentheses, or dashes. - Restrictive Modifiers - Uniquely identify the noun they modify. - Do not use commas with this. - Nonrestrictive Modifiers - Always set off with paired commas. - Adds information that does not change the meaning of the sentence. - An appositive is a truncated nonrestrictive clause. - A dash is useful when the loose commentary has internal commas. - Use parentheses for explanatory footnotes or sotto voce asides. Punctuating Coordinated Elements ================================ Punctuating Two Coordinated Elements ------------------------------------ - Do not put a comma between just two coordinated elements. - Four Exceptions #. For a dramatic contrast, put a comma after the first coordinate element to emphasize the second (keep the second short). #. If you want your readers to feel the cumulative power of a coordinated pair (or more), drop the *and* leave just a comma. #. Put a comma between long coordinated pairs only if you think your readers need a chance to breathe or to sort out the grammar. - The writer should revise the sentence to avoid this scenario. #. If a sentence begins with a phrase or subordinate clause modifying two following clauses that are independent and coordinated, put a comma after the introductory phrase or clause, but do not put a comma between the two coordinated independent clauses. Punctuating Three or More Coordinated Elements ---------------------------------------------- - A comma must always precede the last one. - If any of the items in the series has its own internal commas, use semicolons to show how readers should group the coordinated items. Apostrophes =========== Contractions ------------ - Use an apostrophe in all contracted words. - Contracted words gives off an informal tone. Plurals ------- - Never use an apostrophe to form a plural. - Exceptions: - All lower case single letters. - Single capital letters: A, I, U. - When a word is unambiguously all numbers or multiple capital letters, add just *s*, with no apostrophe. Possessives ----------- - Singular common or proper nouns. - Add apostrophe + s. - For singular nouns that already end in *s* or with the sound of *s*, add the apostrophe only. - Plural common and proper nouns that end in *s*: add an apostrophe only. - Singular compound noun: add an apostrophe + s to the last word. ************************** Appendix II: Using Sources ************************** Paraphrasing Recasts the Source in a New Sentence Structure =========================================================== Weaving in the Quotation ======================== - Don't change its meaning. - Indicate added or changed words with square brackets. - Signal deletions with three space dots. - Use four space dots if you delete a whole sentence or more. - Add *[my emphasis]* or *[emphasis mine]* after the parts of the quote you emphasized using italics, boldface, or underlineation. Punctuating Quotations ====================== - If the quotation ends in a period, comma, semicolon, or colon, replace it with the punctuation you need in your own sentence. - If your punctuation is a period or comma, put it before a final quotation mark. - If your punctuation is a question mark, colon, or semicolon, put it after the final question mark. - If the quotation ends with a question mark or exclamation point and your punctuations is a period or comma, drop your punctuation and put the question mark before the quotation mark. - If you use quotation marks inside a quotation, put your comma or period before both of the marks. .. rubric:: References .. bibliography:: refs.bib :all: